Effect of increasing the level of alfalfa hay in finishing beef heifer diets on intake, sorting, and feeding behavior.

Eight rumen cannulated Simmental heifers (BW = 281.4 ± 7.28 kg) were randomly assigned to one of four experimental treatments in a 4 × 4 replicated Latin square design to ascertain the effects of increasing levels of alfalfa hay on intake, sorting, and feeding behavior in comparison to barley straw as forage source. Treatments tested were four total mixed rations with: 1) 10% barley straw (10BS) with 7.0% NDF from forage, 2) 13% alfalfa hay (13AH) and less NDF from forage (5.7%) than 10BS, 3) 16% alfalfa hay (16AH) and the same NDF from forage (7.0%) as 10BS, and 4) 19% alfalfa hay (19AH) and more NDF from forage (8.3%) than 10BS. Each experimental period consisted of 3 wk for adaptation and 1 wk for sampling. Increasing the proportion of alfalfa hay in the diet linearly increased (P < 0.05) total DMI, CP intake, water consumption, intake of long, medium and fine particle size, extent of sorting of fine particle size, and time spent rumination, but linearly decreased (P < 0.05) extent of sorting of short particle size. Intake of DM was higher in heifers fed 16AH and 19AH than in heifers fed 10BS (P < 0.001). Intake of NDF and physically effective NDF (peNDF) was greater in 13AH, 16AH, and 19AH than in 10BS (P < 0.01). The DMI of medium and short particle size was greater in 13AH, 16AH, and 19AH than in 10BS (P < 0.05), whereas DMI of long particle size was greater in 16AH and 19AH compared to 10BS (P < 0.001). Heifers fed 13AH, 16AH, and 19AH diets sorted against fine particle size and sorted for or tended to sort for short, medium, and long particle sizes. Meal length was greater in heifers fed 16AH and 19AH than 10BS (P < 0.05). Time spent eating was not affected by diet but time spent ruminating was greater in heifers fed 19AH than in 10BS (P < 0.05). Results indicate that the inclusion of alfalfa hay at 19% of incorporation caused an increase in DM, NDF, and peNDF intake, in comparison to the 10BS diet. In the same way, intake of long, medium, and short particle size was greater in this diet. Moreover, heifers fed 19AH sorted for medium particle size and tended to sort for long and short particles size, and against fine particle size. Sorting behavior and meal length increased in the 19AH diet, which leads us to think that sorting feed ingredients requires time and therefore lengthens the meal. Time spent ruminating was greater in heifers fed 19AH, thus reducing the risk of ruminal acidosis when animals are fed high concentrate diets.

Effect of forage source included in total mixed ration on intake, sorting and feeding behavior of growing heifers fed high-concentrate diets.

The objective of this experiment was to compare the effects of using 2 different forage sources on intake and sorting and feeding behavior in growing heifers fed a high-concentrate diet offered as a total mixed ration (TMR). Eight Simmental heifers (initial BW of 148.1 ± 4.83 kg) were used in a crossover design experiment. Treatment diets were a TMR with either barley straw (BS) or alfalfa hay (AH) as forage source. Diets were offered on an ad libitum basis, with a forage to concentrate ratio of 8 to 92. The experiment was performed in two 28-d periods, with 3 wk of diet adaptation and 1 wk of sampling in each period. Heifers were weighed before feeding on 2 consecutive days at the beginning and the end of the experiment, and in the sampling week. Feed and refusal samples were collected daily in the sampling week for DM determination and chemical analysis. Particle size separation was performed using the 3-screen Penn State Particle Separator. Dry matter digestibility was estimated using acid-insoluble ash as internal marker. Feeding behavior was recorded using an automated feeding system. Sorting behavior was measured with the intake of different particle size. Dry matter intake was greater ( < 0.05) in heifers fed BS (6.7 kg/d) than AH (5.8 kg/d) when these animals faced TMR for first time in period 1, but DMI did not differ between diets in period 2 when they were accustomed to the method of feeding. Apparent DM digestibility did not differ between diets (62.7 and 64.3% for BS and AH, respectively). Heifers fed BS sorted in both periods against long particle size ( < 0.01) and against medium particle size in period 2 ( < 0.01), a behavior that did not appear in heifers fed AH. Heifers sorted for short particle size in both diets in period 1, this behavior being maintained in period 2 for heifers fed BS, while it disappeared in heifers fed AH. This sorting behavior preferentially shown in heifers fed BS resulted in a tendency ( = 0.06) for greater length of each meal and a longer feeding time ( = 0.02). In conclusion, at 8% of incorporation, forage source affected intake in only 1 of the 2 experimental periods. Heifers fed BS showed a sorting behavior with preferential consumption for concentrate in the TMR, feeding time being greater in BS than in AH. In contrast, heifers fed AH sorted for short particle size when faced for the first time with a new method of feeding, this sorting behavior disappearing once heifers had got familiar with it.

Technical note: Recording rules for behavioral studies in growing heifers fed high-concentrate diets.

Continuous recording over 24 h is an accurate method for behavioral measurements in ruminants but is very time-consuming. The aim of this study was to compare different recording rules, in particular continuous recording (CR) with different time samplings (TS) methods, when the behavior of growing heifers housed individually and fed a high-concentrate diet is recorded. Behavior of 8 growing heifers was recorded on 6 non-consecutive days. Continuous recording over 24 h, considered the control treatment, was used to evaluate TS methods by recording all the behaviors that occurred for 60 s at intervals of 2 (S2), 5 (S5), 10 (S10), 15 (S15), 20 (S20) and 30 (S30) min. Three additional TS methods were considered: a sampling of the first 10 min of every h (FS10), and a sampling during 4 h (4PF) and 8 h post-feeding (8PF). Two procedures to assess the accuracy of the relationship between CR and TS methods were used: a) data analysis using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS together with the Pearson correlation coefficient, and b) linear regression analysis. In this last case, 1-time sampling was considered to accurately reflect true values obtained with CR if the following 3 criteria were met: the coefficient of determination () was greater than 0.76, the intercept did not differ from 0 ( > 0.05), and the slope did not differ from 1 ( > 0.05). The results of the present study suggest that the latter approach provides a much more focused and reliable way of ensuring the accuracy of each TS method. The S5 TS method produced an accurate estimate for all the behavioral activities, except for drinking, social behavior and rummaging in wood shavings, where it would be necessary to consider the S2 TS method, and S10 for self-grooming. Ruminating and resting can be accurately estimated using the S20 and S30 TS methods, respectively. However, FS10, 4PF and 8PF were inadequate TS methods to measure all the activities studied in the present experiment. In conclusion, not all the TS methods tested are adequate for measuring the behaviors recorded.

Feed intake, ruminal fermentation, and animal behavior of beef heifers fed forage free diets containing nonforage fiber sources.

Eight Simmental heifers (initial BW 313.4 ± 13.2 kg) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental treatments in a 4 × 4 double Latin square design. The experiment was performed in four 28-d periods. Treatments tested were a control diet in which barley straw (BS) was used as a fiber source and 3 diets where the main difference was the nonforage fiber source used: soybean hulls (SH), beet pulp (BP) in pellets, and whole cottonseed (WCS). All ingredients, except the fiber sources, were ground through a 3-mm screen. Fiber ingredients were incorporated at 10, 17, 17, and 16% (on DM basis) in BS, SH, BP, and WCS, respectively. All diets were offered ad libitum as total mixed ration and designed to be isoenergetic (2.95 Mcal ME/kg DM), isonitrogenous (15% CP, DM basis), and with a NDF content of 20% (on DM basis) although there was a discrepancy between the theoretical and the actual chemical composition of the diets. Particle size separation was performed using the 3-screen Penn State Particle Separator. Animals were allotted in 8 individual roofed concrete pens equipped with a feedbunk and water trough. Intake was recorded over 7 d in the last week of each experimental period. Behavior was recorded for 24-h on d 2 and d 6 of each experimental week using a digital video recording device. A digital color camera was set up in front of each pen. Data recorded, except behavioral activities, were statistically analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. To test treatment effect for each behavioral activity, analysis was performed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. Diets ranked from greater to lesser proportion of particles of less than 1.18 mm as follows: SH, BS, WCS, and BP. Dry matter intake of heifers fed WCS was greater than the remaining treatments (P = 0.049). The greatest average ruminal pH was registered in heifers fed BS (6.4) and BP (6.3) whereas the smallest was recorded in SH diet (5.9), with WCS (6.2) occupying an intermediate position (P = 0.006). Total chewing time was greater (P = 0.001) in BS and WCS than in SH and BP. In conclusion, the nonforage fiber sources tested in this experiment can be used in forage-free diets fed to beef heifers as total mixed ration (TMR) without negative consequences in DMI in SH and BP diets and with an increased DMI in WCS diet. The WCS diet promoted rumination and total chewing time to the same degree as BS, which demonstrates that it is equally effective as this forage fiber source.

Effect of feeding method on intake and behaviour of individually reared beef heifers fed a concentrate diet from 115 to 185 kg of body weight.

A total of eight Simmental heifers (114 ± 3.2 days old and weighing 118 ± 3.8 kg BW) were used to study the effects of feeding method on intake and animal behaviour in a crossover design experiment. Treatments consisted of feeding concentrate and chopped barley straw as (1) choice (CH; concentrate and straw in separate feedbunks) or (2) total mixed ration (TMR; concentrate and straw in one feedbunk). Feeds were offered on an ad libitum basis, but always maintaining a concentrate to straw ratio of 90 to 10. The experiment was performed in two 21-day periods, and sampling was carried out in the last week of each period. At the end of each period, treatment was changed for heifers; hence, the final number of animals per treatment was eight. Intake was recorded over 7 consecutive days. BW was recorded at the beginning and the end of the experiment and on day 21 of each experimental period. Barley straw was coarsely chopped with a chopping machine. Once chopped, all the straw was handled for particle size separation using the 2-screen Penn State Particle Separator and only material of more than 8 mm was used to feed the heifers. Animal behaviour was video-recorded for 24 h on day 2 and day 6 of each experimental period. Concentrate intake and total dry matter intake of heifers fed with the CH feeding method were higher (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05) than when fed with TMR (5.1 and 5.3 v. 4.7 and 5.0 kg dry matter (DM)/day, respectively). Conversely, barley straw was consumed in higher amounts in heifers fed with the TMR feeding method (0.3 v. 0.2 kg DM/day, respectively; P = 0.001). The total NDF intake was similar in both treatments. In contrast, NDF intake from barley straw and physically effective NDF intake were higher in heifers fed with the TMR feeding method than when fed with CH. Feeding method used to feed heifers did not affect the consumption of the different kinds of barley straw particles and eating and drinking behaviours but affected ruminating behaviour. Heifers fed TMR spent more time ruminating than heifers fed concentrate and barley straw separately (376 v. 287 min/day, respectively; P < 0.01). TMR as the feeding method in intensive beef production systems could be a good approach to promote roughage intake.

Effects of meloxicam (Metacam®) on post-farrowing sow behaviour and piglet performance.

Farrowing is an intrinsically risky process for both the sow and the piglets that can cause welfare and economic problems. The effects of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug meloxicam on post-farrowing behaviour of sows, and the performance of piglets were investigated. A total of 48 sows were randomly allocated at the day of farrowing (day 0) into two homogeneous groups regarding parity, and treated with either meloxicam or saline solution as placebo. For each sow, number of position changes, total time lying and standing or sitting, feed intake and rectal temperature (RT) were recorded during 3 days after farrowing. Piglets were individually weighed at farrowing and at weaning. The number of position changes did not show significant differences between treatments (P = 0.79). Sows spent significantly less time lying during day +3 after farrowing in the meloxicam group than in the placebo group (P = 0.04). Feed intake and RT showed a parity effect (P < 0.001 in both cases); however, no treatment effect was observed (P = 0.67 and P = 0.47, respectively). Pre-weaning mortality rate in piglets was not affected by treatment. In litters from multiparous sows, piglets of low birth weight (defined as percentile 15: BW <1180 g) had an average daily gain significantly higher in the meloxicam group than in the placebo group (196.6 ± 7.2 v. 166.6 ± 9.1 g/day; P = 0.03). Although the administration of meloxicam 90 min after farrowing showed a positive effect on the total time lying of the sows, additional investigations are required to better qualify relevant indicators of pain following farrowing in sows and to specify the analgesic effects of meloxicam on piglet performance.

Identification of serum stress biomarkers in pigs housed at different stocking densities.

Eight Duroc×(Landrace×Large White) male pigs housed at a stocking rate of 0.50m(2)/pig were subjected to a higher stocking rate of 0.25m(2)/pig (higher density, HD) for two 4-day periods over 26 days. Using biochemical and proteomic techniques serum and plasma samples were examined to identify potential biomarkers for monitoring stress due to HD housing. HD housed pigs showed significant differences (P<0.001) in total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein-associated cholesterol, as well as in concentrations of the pig-major acute phase protein (Pig-MAP) (P=0.002). No differences were observed in serum cortisol or other acute phase proteins such as haptoglobin, C-reactive protein or apolipoprotein A-I. HD-individuals also showed an imbalance in redox homeostasis, detected as an increase in the level of oxidized proteins measured as the total plasma carbonyl protein content (P<0.001) with a compensatory increase in the activity of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase (P=0.012). Comparison of the serum proteome yielded a new potential stress biomarker, identified as actin by mass spectrometry. Cluster analysis of the results indicated that individuals segregated into two groups, with different response patterns, suggesting that the stress response depended on individual susceptibility.

Performance, ruminal changes, behaviour and welfare of growing heifers fed a concentrate diet with or without barley straw.

Two experiments were conducted to ascertain the effects of feeding an all-concentrate diet to growing heifers on performance, ruminal fermentation, behaviour and welfare. In experiment 1, eight tethered rumen fistulated Holstein heifers (143 ± 8.7 kg, initial BW) were used to study the effects of treatment on intake, ruminal changes and behaviour. In experiment 2, 48 Friesian female calves (initial BW = 84.5 ± 1.37 kg) were used to study the effects of treatment on performance, behaviour and welfare in feedlot conditions. In both experiments, treatments consisted of concentrate with barley straw (BS) or without barley straw (NBS) and feed was offered at 0830 h on an ad libitum basis. Experiment 1 was performed in four 42-day periods, and sampling was carried out in the last week of each period. Ruminal samples were collected over 3 days at 0, 4, 8 and 12 h post-feeding to measure pH, and volatile fatty acids (VFA) and NH(3)-N concentrations. Maintenance behaviour was video-recorded for 24 h over three consecutive days of each experimental period and feed intake pattern was studied by means of feed bunks mounted on digital platform scales. There were no statistical differences in average daily gain (ADG), concentrate dry matter (DM) intake or CP intake. In contrast, NDF intake and ADF intake were greater in heifers fed BS than NBS. Average ruminal pH was lower, whereas total VFA was greater, in heifers fed NBS diet. There were no differences in NH(3)-N, and in D- and L-lactate concentrations. Time spent in ruminating was shorter, and stereotypies were more frequent in heifers fed diet NBS compared with those fed BS. In experiment 2, nine 28-day periods were established, in which DM intake and ADG were measured, blood and faecal samples were taken for haptoglobin and glucocorticoid metabolites determination, respectively, as welfare indicators, and behaviour was monitored by video recording. Concentrate intake was similar in both treatments, but total feed intake was greater in heifers fed BS diet. As there were no differences in ADG between treatments, gain efficiency was lower in those fed BS than those fed NBS. Blood haptoglobin and faecal glucocorticoids metabolites were not different between treatments. In these competitive conditions, rumination was also reduced and stereotypic behaviour increased by straw exclusion. In conclusion, performance was either not affected or improved by straw exclusion, but animal behaviour was affected, suggesting a negative effect on animal welfare.

Breed differences in behavioural response to challenging situations in kittens.

In a previous experiment, the behaviour of Oriental/Siamese/Abyssinian (OSA) kittens was compared with that of Norwegian Forest kittens (NFO) in a repeated Open Field Test (OFT), and significant differences emerged. To further investigate such variations, we analyzed kittens' responses to a potentially threatening object (TO) during the OFT. It was a metal spring enveloped in a cotton case suddenly bouncing out of the cylinder after the first 6 min of OFT exposure, and the test lasted 6 more minutes. From the 4th to the 10th week of age, during each test, the response of 43 OSA kittens and 39 NFO kittens to the TO was analyzed. Heart rate (HR) before and after the test was recorded. Behaviours were recorded and analyzed by focal animal sampling. Behavioural modifications recorded after TO exposure confirmed our suggestions on slow limbic system development in NFO kittens, as previously suggested by poor habituation and poor memory retention of repeated OFT exposure. The evident avoiding response to the TO confirmed the adoption in NFO kittens of an active-coping strategy towards challenge, as indicated also by their high scores for exploration and escape attempts. Otherwise, poor TO influence on exploration observed in OSA kittens suggested the adoption of a passive coping strategy, as previously shown by low levels of exploration and intra-session reduction in the number of vocalizations. Nevertheless, some of the behaviours observed, and the evidence of emotional tachycardia in OSA kittens, suggested also that the low level of activity recorded could have been due to a low arousability predisposition in this breed. The perception of a poorly arousing potential in the experimental setting might have influenced the perception of danger and the behaviour adopted in OSA kittens.

A behavioural scale to measure ease of farrowing in sows.

Farrowing is one of the most critical phases in pig production, as it has an impact on neonatal pig survival. Assessing the ease of farrowing can improve the management of sows and thus increase litter survival. The aims of this study were: 1) to develop an ease of farrowing score (EFS) in sows based on the behaviour of the sows and their piglets, and 2) to determine the relationship between the EFS and productive, physiological, and subjective parameters. Eighty hybrid (Large White × Landrace) sows from first to seventh parity housed in individual crates were used. An EFS was constructed using the total duration of farrowing, the birth interval, the total time standing or sitting, the number of position changes during the day before and the day of farrowing, the sow posture at birth, the viability and the position of the piglets at birth (head or back born). Moreover, rectal temperature at 90 min after farrowing, a four categorical subjective visual assessment (VA) of farrowing and litter size (piglets born alive, stillborn and mummified foetus) were recorded. A common factor analysis model yielded five factors with an eigenvalue higher than 0.95 that accounted for 75.05% of the total variation between individuals. The three main factors were "farrowing duration", "sow posture", and "sow activity" of sows and explained 23.44%, 15.67%, and 14.23% of the variance, respectively. Primiparous sows had higher values for factor 3 (sow activity) than multiparous sows (P = 0.02). Sows without stillborn or mummification foetus showed higher values of EFS than sows with at least one stillborn or mummification foetus (P = 0.06 and 0.01, respectively). Sows that received a visual assessment of 3 and 4 showed higher values of EFS than sows that received a VA of 1 and 2 (P = 0.0017). The EFS appears to be a good behavioural scale to measure ease of farrowing in sows kept in individual farrowing crates. Duration of farrowing, sow position, and presence of stillborn piglets and mummified foetuses appear to be important ease of farrowing indicators.

Effects of ring castration with local anesthesia and analgesia in Holstein calves at 3 months of age on welfare indicators.

Forty-seven Holstein calves (130 +/- 3.43 kg of BW and 95 +/- 1.5 d of age) were randomly assigned to 2 treatments [intact (INT), n = 23; or castrated (CAS), n = 24] to evaluate the effect of ring castration at 3 mo of age on welfare indicators. Castration was performed with local anesthesia (2% lidocaine, 3 mL in each testis and 2 mL in the scrotum) and analgesia (flunixin meglumine, intramuscularly, 3 mg/kg of BW). No local anesthesia or analgesia was used with INT calves. Serum cortisol concentration was determined at -120, 0, 30, 60, 90, and 180 min with respect to castration. At d 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, and 49, serum haptoglobin concentration was determined, rectal body and scrotal temperatures were measured, lesions at the castration site were scored, and the activity and behavior of 18 calves (9 INT and 9 CAS) were recorded continuously for 24 h. Weekly BW and concentrate and straw DMI were recorded. To evaluate humoral immunity, at 14 d after castration, ovalbumin was injected subcutaneously and serum antibody titers against ovalbumin before the injection and at d 35 were determined. At d 49 after castration, calves were intravenously injected with ACTH, and at 0, 1, 2, and 4 h thereafter, serum cortisol and testosterone concentrations were determined. Average daily gain was greater (P < 0.001) in INT than CAS calves (1.36 vs. 1.16 +/- 0.038 kg/d, respectively). Area under the curve of cortisol at castration day was reduced (P < 0.05) in CAS calves compared with INT calves (18 vs. 33 +/- 5.2 nmol/L per hour, respectively). The main scrotal lesion score observed in CAS calves throughout the study was 0, corresponding to no visible swelling, inflammation, or infection. However, scrotal lesion scores classified as 1 (swelling) were greater (P < 0.01) at 21 and 28 d after castration than at 1, 3, 7, and 14 d. Abnormal standing occurred more frequently (P < 0.001) in CAS than INT calves (2.6 vs. 0.5 +/- 0.03%, respectively) from 3 to 14 d after castration. Head turning tended (P = 0.06) to be greater at d 14 of the study in CAS than INT calves (3.0 vs. 2.6 +/- 0.04%, respectively). At d 49, 100% of CAS calves had no testes and no serum testosterone was detected. In summary, ring castration of Holstein calves performed at 3 mo of age with local anesthesia and analgesia decreased ADG and affected some behavioral traits during the first 14 d after castration. However, intake, serum cortisol and haptoglobin concentrations, rectal temperature, and humoral immunity were not altered.

[Restless legs syndrome: detection, diagnosis, impact on health and utilization of health care resources]. / El síndrome de piernas inquietas: detección, diagnóstico, consecuencias sobre la salud y utilización de recursos sanitarios.

INTRODUCTION: Despite the high prevalence of Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS) reported, little information is available about this disorder in Spain. The present study was conducted to obtain information on this condition from patients identified by a simple screening questionnaire and subsequent diagnostic confirmation by the Primary Care Practitioner (PCP). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three-stage, cross-sectional and retrospective (resource utilization), observational study in a sample of adult patients (2,047 subject) attending 10 outpatient Primary Care centers in Madrid, Barcelona and Valencia. A screening questionnaire containing the 4 RLS diagnostic criteria was used. Clinical assessment and RLS diagnosis confirmation was performed using a structured questionnaire. Other variables assessed were quality of life by SF-36 questionnaire scoring; sleep by the MOS sleep scale; symptom severity of RLS symptoms by the IRLS scales; health care resource utilization in the previous 12 months by completion of questionnaire following patient chart review. The diagnosis made by the PCP was confirmed in a small sample of patients by a neurologist expert in Movement Disorders. RESULTS: A total of 19.7% (404 out of 2,047) subjects positively answered the 4 diagnostic questions of the RLS screening questionnaire. Of these, 185 (9.0%) reported moderate to severe symptoms at least twice weekly. The PCP made a diagnosis of RLS in 79 of 154 patients completing the diagnostic interview. Thus, prevalence of RLS estimated in this adult population was 4.6%. The predictive value of the screening RLS questionnaire was 51.3%. Average age of symptom onset was 42 years (range: 20 - over 80 years). RLS symptoms were moderately (50.6%) or extremely (38%) distressing and 73.4% of RLS patients slept poorly at least two nights a week. This diagnosis represents 9.4% of all patients presenting to PCP and experiencing poor sleep. Mean score in the IRLS scale (0 - 40) was 19.4. Average score of SF-36 questionnaire (0-100) was 54.6, lower than the Spanish general reference population (61.4). About one third of the RLS patients had seen a physician because of RLS symptoms. However, a diagnosis was made in only 48% of these and only 5% the diagnosis was RLS. CONCLUSIONS: The DECODE RLS - Spain study shows that many patients with classical RLS symptoms frequently see their PCP without being adequately diagnosed and treated. Screening tools such as that used in this study may contribute to the detection of these patients.

Intake, water consumption, ruminal fermentation, and stress response of beef heifers fed after different lengths of delays in the daily feed delivery time.

Four rumen-fistulated Holstein heifers (134 +/- 1 kg initial BW) were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square design to determine the effects of delaying daily feed delivery time on intake, ruminal fermentation, behavior, and stress response. Each 3-wk experimental period was preceded by 1 wk in which all animals were fed at 0800 h. Feed bunks were cleaned at 0745 h and feed offered at 0800 h (T0, no delay), 0900 (T1), 1000 (T2), and 1100 (T3) from d 1 to 21 with measurements taken during wk 1 and 3. Heifers were able to see each other at all times. Concentrate and barley straw were offered in separate compartments of the feed bunks, once daily and for ad libitum intake. Ruminal pH and saliva cortisol concentrations were measured at 0, 4, 8, and 12 h postfeeding on d 3 and 17 of each experimental period. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites were measured on d 17. Increasing length of delay in daily feed delivery time resulted in a quadratic response in concentrate DMI (low in T1 and T2; P = 0.002), whereas straw DMI was greatest in T1 and T3 (cubic P = 0.03). Treatments affected the distribution of DMI within the day with a linear decrease observed between 0800 and 1200 h but a linear increase during nighttimes (2000 to 0800 h), whereas T1 and T2 had reduced DMI between 1200 and 1600 h (quadratic P = 0.04). Water consumption (L/d) was not affected but decreased linearly when expressed as liters per kilogram of DMI (P = 0.01). Meal length was greatest and eating rate slowest in T1 and T2 (quadratic P < or = 0.001). Size of the first meal after feed delivery was reduced in T1 on d 1 (cubic P = 0.05) and decreased linearly on d 2 (P = 0.01) after change. Concentrate eating and drinking time (shortest in T1) and straw eating time (longest in T1) followed a cubic trend (P < or = 0.02). Time spent lying down was shortest and ruminating in standing position longest in T1 and T2. Delay of feeding time resulted in greater daily maximum salivary cortisol concentration (quadratic P = 0.04), which was greatest at 0 h in T1 and at 12 h after feeding in T2 (P < 0.05). Daily mean fecal glucocorticoid metabolites were greatest in T1 and T3 (cubic P = 0.04). Ruminal pH showed a treatment effect at wk 1 because of increased values in T1 and T3 (cubic P = 0.01). Delaying feed delivery time was not detrimental for rumen function because a stress response was triggered, which led to reduced concentrate intake, eating rate, and size of first meal, and increased straw intake. Increased salivary cortisol suggests that animal welfare is compromised.

Breed differences in behavioural development in kittens.

Differences in behaviour of pure breed cats have been suggested but not wholly investigated. Oriental/Siamese/Abyssinian (OSA) kittens (n=43) were weekly compared with Norwegian Forest (NFO) kittens (n=39) from the 4th to the 10th week of age in a repeated Open Field Test (OFT) paradigm. Heart rate (HR) and rectal temperature (RT) before and after the test, and behavioural responses during the OFT were recorded. Behaviours registered were analysed by focal animal sampling. Significant breed differences were found; cats of the northern zones (NFO) seem to develop earlier thermoregulatory abilities. Precocious opening of eyes, higher locomotion scores and longer time spent standing, observed in OSA kittens may indicate an earlier neurological development. Inter breed differences recorded for exploration and locomotion seem to indicate coping style divergences: in the OFT challenging situation OSA kittens presented higher emotional tachycardia and performed more passively, with a faster decline in exploration and locomotion scores. NFO kittens exerted a more active behaviour as they spent more time exploring the arena and in escape attempts. Notwithstanding OSA and NFO cat selection was mainly aimed to improve divergent morphological traits, some different behavioural and physiological traits seem to have been maintained or co-selected within each breed.

Performance, behavior, and welfare of Friesian heifers housed in pens with two, four, and eight individuals per concentrate feeding place.

The objective of the present study was to examine the effects of increasing the number of heifers per concentrate feeding place on performance, behavior, welfare indicators, and ruminal fermentation of feedlot heifers. Seventy-two Friesian heifers were used in a factorial arrangement, with 3 treatments and 3 blocks of similar BW. Treatments consisted of 2 (T2), 4 (T4), or 8 (T8) heifers per each place in the concentrate feeder (8 heifers/pen). Concentrate and straw were fed at 0830 h in individual feeders that allowed ad libitum consumption. During 6 periods of 28 d each, DMI and ADG were measured, and blood and rumen samples were taken. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites and behavior were measured at periods 1, 3, and 6. Final BW, ADG, and G:F were not affected by treatments. Variability in final BW among heifers sharing the same pen tended to increase (P = 0.06) and concentrate intake decreased linearly as competition increased. The proportion of abscessed livers responded quadratically, being 8, 4, and 20% for T2, T4, and T8, respectively. Concentrate eating time decreased (P = 0.001) and eating rate increased (P = 0.05) linearly, whereas the variability between pen mates in concentrate eating time was greatest in T4 and T8. Increasing competition resulted in a quadratic response (P = 0.02) in daily lying time (greatest in T2), whereas standing time increased linearly (P = 0.02). The number of displacements among pen mates from the concentrate feeders, as well as the total sum of displacements, increased linearly (P < 0.05) with increasing competition. The pen average of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites was not affected by treatments (P >/= 0.16) but the pen's maximum concentration responded quadratically (P < 0.001), being greatest in T8, with dominant heifers being the most affected. Serum haptoglobin concentration increased linearly (P = 0.05) with competition, particularly within the most subordinate heifers. Increased competition reduced (P < 0.05) ruminal pH only in periods 1 and 2 and increased ruminal lactate (P = 0.02). Increasing competition at the concentrate feeders increased the variability in final BW but performance was not affected. Detrimental effects on animal welfare might be deduced from the altered feeding behavior, reduced resting time, and increased aggression. Ruminal lactate and blood haptoglobin indicate that the risk of rumen acidosis might increase with competition, whereas liver abscesses increased at 8 heifers per feeder.

Effect of the number of concentrate feeding places per pen on performance, behavior, and welfare indicators of Friesian calves during the first month after arrival at the feedlot.

Seventy-two Friesian calves (BW = 102.0 +/- 1.8 kg) were bought from a commercial calf farm and distributed to a factorial arrangement of treatments in a complete block design with 3 treatments and 3 blocks of similar fasted BW to study the effect of increasing the number of feeding places per pen on performance, behavior, and welfare indicators during the 4 wk after arrival. Treatments consisted of 1 (T1), 2 (T2), or 4 (T4) concentrate feeding places/pen (8 calves/pen). Concentrate and straw were fed at 0830 in individual feeders, and animals were allowed to consume on an ad libitum basis. Dry matter intake and ADG were recorded weekly, and blood samples were taken on d 0 (before transport), 7, 14, 21, and 28. Time spent in maintenance activities, number of displacements between calves, and the angular dominance value (ADV) were registered at wk 1 and 3 after arrival. Increasing the number of feeding places per pen resulted in a quadratic response of concentrate and total DMI, ADG, and BW during the 28-d period, with T1 showing the lowest values. Straw intake and the within-pen SD of ADG tended to decrease linearly (P = 0.10) as the number of feeding places per pen increased. During the 4-wk receiving period, and particularly on d 7 after arrival, serum NEFA responded quadratically, with T1 and T2 calves showing the greatest values. With increasing number of concentrate feeders, the average time spent lying increased (P = 0.001), standing time decreased linearly (P = 0.001), and the diurnal feeding pattern changed (concentrate eating time increased but straw eating time decreased during peak feeding times, P < 0.05). The number of displacements from the concentrate feeders responded quadratically (P < 0.001) with increasing number of feeding places per pen, with T4 calves showing the lowest levels of aggression. In T1 calves, increasing ADV resulted in a linear decrease (P = 0.03) of ADG at wk 1 with a quadratic effect at wk 3 (P < 0.01). In T2 calves, increasing ADV resulted in a linear decrease (P = 0.04) of ADG at wk 1 but a linear increase (P = 0.02) at wk 3. No effect of social rank on ADG was observed in T4 calves (P > 0.20). Increasing social pressure at the concentrate feeders beyond the threshold of 4 heifers per feeder had a negative effect on performance. Within-pen variability in performance increased linearly as a consequence of greater effects of social dominance. Physiological indicators of welfare were not consistently affected by treatments.

Truncated E2 of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) expressed in Drosophila melanogaster cells: a candidate antigen for a BVDV ELISA.

A simple and reliable indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies directed against a major bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) immunogen, the E2 glycoprotein (tE2-ELISA), has been developed using the recombinant C-terminal truncated E2 glycoprotein (tE2) expressed in a Drosophila melanogaster system. This strategy demonstrated that tE2 is secreted efficiently in the supernatant, no purification steps are necessary, it is easy to produce and carries out the post translational modifications necessary to preserve its native conformation. Preliminary analysis of 183 cattle serum samples using tE2-ELISA showed a 98% specificity and a 100% sensitivity compared with the standard homologous BVDV virus neutralization test. The results also showed that the tE2 is immunoreactive because the conformation and antigenicity of the original E2 are maintained to a large extent. To our knowledge this is the first study report of the recombinant tE2 of BVDV expressed in D. melanogaster system as an antigen for ELISA.

Acclimatization of rats after ground transportation to a new animal facility.

This study aimed to assess the time needed by rats, which had not been previously transported, to acclimate to a new environment after 5 h of van transport, using physiological parameters as measures of acclimatization. Animal shipping boxes and transport van conditions were standardized to minimize stress factors that could be associated with transport. Heart rate (HR), body temperature and activity levels were measured in the rats before and after transport using previously implanted radio-telemetry transmitters. Body weight was also recorded. All parameters were changed significantly except for body temperature. Results suggest that rats take three days to acclimate to a new environment, as measured by the physiological parameters of body weight, HR and activity.